9th physics lessons

The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Chemistry->Material	Changes Around Us	CBSE	6
Chemistry->Material	Sorting of Materials into Groups	CBSE	6
Chemistry->Material	Physical and Chemical Changes	CBSE	7
Chemistry->Material	Separation of Substance	CBSE	6
Chemistry->Material	6.Coal and Petroleum	CBSE	8
Chemistry->Material	Matter In Our Surroundings	CBSE	9
Chemistry->Material	4.Metals and Non metals	CBSE	8
Chemistry->Material	Fiber and Fabric	CBSE	6
Chemistry->Material	Is Matter Around Us Pure	CBSE	9
Chemistry->Material	Carbon and its Compound	CBSE	10
Chemistry->Material	Metals and Non metals	CBSE	10
Chemistry->Material	3.Synthetic fiber and plastics	CBSE	8
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Chemistry->Chemical Reaction

Chemical Reactions and Equations

CBSE

10

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Chemistry->Acid, Bases and Salts	Acid, Bases and Salts	CBSE	7
Chemistry->Acid, Bases and Salts	Acid, Bases and Salts	CBSE	10
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Chemistry->Heat	7.Combustion and Flame	CBSE	8
Chemistry->Heat	Heat	CBSE	7
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Chemistry->Atoms and Molecules	Atoms and Molecules	CBSE	9
Chemistry->Atoms and Molecules	Structure of the Atom	CBSE	9
Chemistry->Atoms and Molecules	Periodic Classification of Elements	CBSE	10
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Physics->Electricity	Electricity and Circuits	CBSE	6
Physics->Electricity	Electric current and its effect	CBSE	7
Physics->Electricity	9.Some Natural Phenomena	CBSE	8
Physics->Electricity	Electricity	CBSE	10
Physics->Electricity	8.Chemical Effects of Electric Current	CBSE	8
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Physics->Magnetic Effect	Magnetic Effects of Electric Current	CBSE	10
Physics->Magnetic Effect	Fun with Magnets	CBSE	6
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Physics->Sound	5.Sound	CBSE	8
Physics->Sound	Sound	CBSE	9
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Physics->Mechanics	1.Force and Pressure	CBSE	8
Physics->Mechanics	Time and Motion	CBSE	7
Physics->Mechanics	Force and law of motion	CBSE	9
Physics->Mechanics	2.Friction	CBSE	8
Physics->Mechanics	Sources of Energy	CBSE	10
Physics->Mechanics	Gravitation	CBSE	9
Physics->Mechanics	Motion	CBSE	9
Physics->Mechanics	Motion and Measurement of Distances	CBSE	6
Physics->Mechanics	Work and Energy	CBSE	9
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The following contents are available

Topic	Title	Author	Level
Physics->Light	Light	CBSE	7
Physics->Light	10.Stars and The Solar System	CBSE	8
Physics->Light	Light, Shadows and Reflections	CBSE	6
Physics->Light	Light	CBSE	8
Physics->Light	The Human Eye and the Colourful World	CBSE	10
Physics->Light	Light : Reflection and Refraction	CBSE	10
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1. MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS

As we look at our surroundings, we see a large variety of things with different shapes, sizes and textures. Everything in this universe is made up of material which scientists have named “matter”. The air we breathe, the food we eat, stones, clouds, stars, plants and animals, even a small drop of water or a particle of sand– each thing is matter. We can also see as we look around that all the things mentioned above occupy space, that is, volume* and have mass.

Since early times, human beings have been trying to understand their surroundings. Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements – the “Panch Tatva”– air, earth, fire, sky and water. According to them everything, living or nonliving, was made up of these five basic elements. Ancient Greek philosophers had arrived at a similar classification of matter.

Modern day scientists have evolved two types of classification of matter based on their physical properties and chemical nature.

In this chapter we shall learn about matter based on its physical properties. Chemical aspects of matter will be taken up in subsequent chapters.

1.1 Physical Nature of Matter

1.1.1 MATTER IS MADE UP OF PARTICLES

For a long time, two schools of thought prevailed regarding the nature of matter. One school believed matter to be continuous like a block of wood, whereas, the other thought that matter was made up of particles like sand. Let us perform an activity to decide about the nature of matter – is it continuous or particulate?

Activity 1

• Take a 100 mL beaker.
• Fill half the beaker with water and mark the level of water.
• Dissolve some salt/ sugar with the help of a glass rod.
• Observe any change in water level.
• What do you think has happened to the salt?
• Where does it disappear?
• Does the level of water change?

In order to answer these questions we need to use the idea that matter is made up of particles. What was there in the spoon, salt or sugar, has now spread throughout water. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1:When we dissolve salt in water,the particles of salt get into the spaces between particles of water.

1.1.2 HOW SMALL ARE THESE PARTICLES OF MATTER?

Activity 2

• Take 2-3 crystals of potassium permanganate and dissolve them in 100 mL of water.
• Take out approximately 10 mL of this solution and put it into 90 mL of clear water.
• Take out 10 mL of this solution and put it into another 90 mL of clear water.
• Keep diluting the solution like this 5 to 8 times.
• Is the water still coloured ?

Fig. 2:Estimating how small are the particles of matter.With every dilution,though the colour becomes light,it is still visible.

This experiment shows that just a few crystals of potassium permanganate can colour a large volume of water (about 1000 L). So we conclude that there must be millions of tiny particles in just one crystal of potassium permanganate, which keep on dividing themselves into smaller and smaller particles. Ultimately a stage is reached when the particles cannot divide further into smaller particles.

The same activity can be done using 2 mL of Dettol instead of potassium permanganate. The smell can be detected even on repeated dilution.

The particles of matter are very small – they are small beyond our imagination!!

1.2 Characteristics of Particles of Matter

1.2.1 PARTICLES OF MATTER HAVE SPACE BETWEEN THEM

In activities 1 and 2 we saw that particles of sugar, salt, Dettol, or potassium permanganate got evenly distributed in water. Similarly, when we make tea, coffee or lemonade (nimbu paani), particles of one type of matter get into the spaces between particles of the other. This shows that there is enough space between particles of matter.

1.2.2 PARTICLES OF MATTER ARE CONTINUOUSLY MOVING

Activity 3

• Put an unlit incense stick in a corner of your class. How close do you have to go near it so as to get its smell?
• Now light the incense stick. What happens? Do you get the smell sitting at a distance?
• Record your observations.

Activity 4

• Take two glasses/beakers filled with water.
• Put a drop of blue or red ink slowly and carefully along the sides of the first beaker and honey in the same way in the second beaker.
• Leave them undisturbed in your house or in a corner in the class.
• Record your observations.
• What do you observe immediately after adding the ink drop?
• What do you observe immediately after adding a drop of honey?
• How many hours or days does it take for the colour of ink to spread evenly throughout the water?

Activity 5

• Drop a crystal of copper sulphate or potassium permanganate into a glass of hot water and another containing cold water. Do not stir the solution. Allow the crystals to settle at the bottom.
• What do you observe just above the solid crystal in the glass?
• What happens as time passes?
• What does this suggest about the particles of solid and liquid?
• Does the rate of mixing change with temperature? Why and how?

From the above three activities (3, 4 and 5), we can conclude the following:

Particles of matter are continuously moving, that is, they possess what we call the kinetic energy. As the temperature rises, particles move faster. So, we can say that with increase in temperature the kinetic energy of the particles also increases.

In the above three activities we observe that particles of matter intermix on their own with each other. They do so by getting into the spaces between the particles. This intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion. We also observe that on heating, diffusion becomes faster. Why does this happen?

1.2.3 PARTICLES OF MATTER ATTRACT EACH OTHER

Activity 6

• Play this game in the field— make four groups and form human chains as suggested:
• The first group should hold each other from the back and lock arms like Bihu dancers (Fig. 3).

• The second group should hold hands to form a human chain.
• The third group should form a chain by touching each other with only their finger tips.
• Now, the fourth group of students should run around and try to break the three human chains one by one into as many small groups as possible.
• Which group was the easiest to break? Why?
• If we consider each student as a particle of matter, then in which group the particles held each other with the maximum force?

Activity 7

• Take an iron nail, a piece of chalk and a rubber band.
• Try breaking them by hammering, cutting or stretching.
• In which of the above three substances do you think the particles are held together with greater force?

Activity 8

• Open a water tap, try breaking the stream of water with your fingers.
• Were you able to cut the stream of water?
• What could be the reason behind the stream of water remaining together?

The above three activities (6, 7 and 8) suggest that particles of matter have force acting between them. This force keeps the particles together. The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another.

QUESTIONS

• Which of the following are matter? Chair, air, love, smell, hate, almonds, thought, cold, cold drink, smell of perfume.

S.No	Option	True/False
a.	Chair	Matter Not matter
b.	Air	Matter Not matter
c.	Love	Matter Not matter
d.	Smell	Matter Not matter
e.	Hate	Matter not matter
f.	Hate	Matter not matter
g.	Almonds	Matter not matter
h.	Thought	Matter not matter
i.	Cold	Matter not matter
j.	Cold drink	Matter not matter

• Give reasons for the following observation:
The smell of hot sizzling food reaches you several metres away, but to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.
• A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of matter does this observation show?
• What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?

1.3 States of Matter

Observe different types of matter around you. What are its different states? We can see that matter around us exists in three different states– solid, liquid and gas. These states of matter arise due to the variation in the characteristics of the particles of matter.

Now, let us study about the properties of these three states of matter in detail.

1.3.1 THE SOLID STATE

Activity 9

• Collect the following articles— a pen, a book, a needle and a piece of thread.
• Sketch the shape of the above articles in your notebook by moving a pencil around them.
• Do all these have a definite shape, distinct boundaries and a fixed volume?
• What happens if they are hammered, pulled or dropped?
• Are these capable of diffusing into each other?
• Try compressing them by applying force. Are you able to compress them?

All the above are examples of solids. We can observe that all these have a definite shape, distinct boundaries and fixed volumes, that is, have negligible compressibility. Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force. Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape, so they are rigid.

Consider the following:

(a) What about a rubber band, can it change its shape on stretching? Is it a solid?

(b) What about sugar and salt? When kept in different jars these take the shape of the jar. Are they solid?

(c) What about a sponge? It is a solid yet we are able to compress it. Why?

All the above are solids as:

• A rubber band changes shape under force and regains the same shape when the force is removed. If excessive force is applied, it breaks.
• The shape of each individual sugar or salt crystal remains fixed, whether we take it in our hand, put it in a plate or in a jar.
• A sponge has minute holes, in which air is trapped, when we press it, the air is expelled out and we are able to compress it.

1.3.2 THE LIQUID STATE

Activity 10

• Collect the following:
(a) water, cooking oil, milk, juice, a cold drink.
(b) containers of different shapes. Put a 50 mL mark on these containers using a measuring cylinder from the laboratory.
• What will happen if these liquids are spilt on the floor?
• Measure 50 mL of any one liquid and transfer it into different containers one by one. Does the volume remain the same?
• Does the shape of the liquid remain the same ?
• When you pour the liquid from one container into another, does it flow easily?

We observe that liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up the shape of the container in which they are kept. Liquids flow and change shape, so they are not rigid but can be called fluid.

Refer to activities 4 and 5 where we saw that solids and liquids can diffuse into liquids. The gases from the atmosphere diffuse and dissolve in water. These gases, especially oxygen and carbon dioxide, are essential for the survival of aquatic animals and plants.

All living creatures need to breathe for survival. The aquatic animals can breathe under water due to the presence of dissolved oxygen in water. Thus, we may conclude that solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids. This is due to the fact that in the liquid state, particles move freely and have greater space between each other as compared to particles in the solid state.

1.3.3 THE GASEOUS STATE

Have you ever observed a balloon seller filling a large number of balloons from a single cylinder of gas? Enquire from him how many balloons is he able to fill from one cylinder. Ask him which gas does he have in the cylinder.

Activity 11

• Take three 100 mL syringes and close their nozzles by rubber corks, as shown in Fig.4.
• Remove the pistons from all the syringes.
• Leaving one syringe untouched, fill water in the second and pieces of chalk in the third.
• Insert the pistons back into the syringes. You may apply some Vaseline on the pistons before inserting them into the syringes for their smooth movement.
• Now, try to compress the content by pushing the piston in each syringe.

• What do you observe? In which case was the piston easily pushed in?
• What do you infer from your observations?

We have observed that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids. The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder that we get in our home for cooking or the oxygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders is compressed gas. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as fuel these days in vehicles. Due to its high compressibility, large volumes of a gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily.

We come to know of what is being cooked in the kitchen without even entering there, by the smell that reaches our nostrils. How does this smell reach us? The particles of the aroma of food mix with the particles of air spread from the kitchen, reach us and even farther away. The smell of hot cooked food reaches us in seconds; compare this with the rate of diffusion of solids and liquids. Due to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.

In the gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed. Due to this random movement, the particles hit each other and also the walls of the container. The pressure exerted by the gas is because of this force exerted by gas particles per unit area on the walls of the container.

Fig. 5: a,b and c shows the magnified schematic pictures of the three states of matter.The motion of particles can be seen and compared in the three states of matter.

QUESTIONS

The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density. (density = mass/volume). Arrange the following in order of increasing density
Air

Exhaust from chimneys

Honey

Water

Chalk

Cotton

Iron
(a) Tabulate the differences in the characteristics of states of matter.
(b) Comment upon the following: rigidity, compressibility, fluidity, filling a gas container, shape, kinetic energy and density.
Give reasons
(a) A gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept.
(b) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.
(c) A wooden table should be called a solid.
(d) We can easily move our hand in air but to do the same through a solid block of wood we need a karate expert.
Liquids generally have lower density as compared to solids. But you must have observed that ice floats on water. Find out why.

1.4 Can Matter Change its State?

We all know from our observation that water can exist in three states of matter–

• solid, as ice,
• liquid, as the familiar water, and
• gas, as water vapour.

What happens inside the matter during this change of state? What happens to the particles of matter during the change of states? How does this change of state take place? We need answers to these questions, isn’t it?

1.4.1 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE

Activity 12

• Take about 150 g of ice in a beaker and suspend a laboratory thermometer so that its bulb is in contact with the ice, as in Fig. 6.


Fig. 6:  (a) Conversion of ice to water, (b) conversion of water to water vapour
• Start heating the beaker on a low flame.
• Note the temperature when the ice starts melting.
• Note the temperature when all the ice has converted into water.
• Record your observations for this conversion of solid to liquid state.
• Now, put a glass rod in the beaker and heat while stirring till the water starts boiling.
• Keep a careful eye on the thermometer reading till most of the water has vaporized.
• Record your observations for the conversion of water in the liquid state to the gaseous state.

On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating with greater speed. The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. The particles leave their fixed positions and start moving more freely. A stage is reached when the solid melts and is converted to a liquid. The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.

The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of attraction between its particles

The melting point of ice is 273.16 K*. The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion. When a solid melts, its temperature remains the same, so where does the heat energy go?

You must have observed, during the experiment of melting, that the temperature of the system does not change after the melting point is reached, till all the ice melts. This happens even though we continue to heat the beaker, that is, we continue to supply heat. This heat gets used up in changing the state by overcoming the forces of attraction between the particles. As this heat energy is absorbed by ice without showing any rise in temperature, it is considered that it gets hidden into the contents of the beaker and is known as the latent heat. The word latent means hidden. The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion. So, particles in water at 00 C (273 K) have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same temperature.

When we supply heat energy to water, particles start moving even faster. At a certain temperature, a point is reached when the particles have enough energy to break free from the forces of attraction of each other. At this temperature the liquid starts changing into gas. The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk of the liquid gain enough energy to change into the vapour state.

For water this temperature is 373 K

(100^oC = 273 + 100 = 373 K).

Can you define the latent heat of vaporization? Do it in the same way as we have defined the latent heat of fusion. Particles in steam, that is, water vapour at 373 K (1000^oC) have more energy than water at the same temperature. This is because particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of vaporization.

So, we infer that the state of matter can be changed into another state by changing the temperature.

We have learnt that substances around us change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas on application of heat. But there

Note: Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, 0^oC =273.16 K. For convenience, we take 0^oC = 273 K after rounding off the decimal. To change a temperature on the Kelvin scale to the Celsius scale you have to subtract 273 from the given temperature, and to convert a temperature on the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale you have to add 273 to the given temperature.

are some that change directly from solid state to gaseous state and vice versa without changing into the liquid state.

Activity 13

• Take some camphor or ammonium chloride. Crush it and put it in a china dish.
• Put an inverted funnel over the china dish.
• Put a cotton plug on the stem of the funnel, as shown in Fig. 7.


Fig. 7:Sublimation of ammonium chloride
• Now, heat slowly and observe.
• What do you infer from the above activity?

A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into liquid state (or vice versa) is called sublimation.

1.4.2 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF PRESSURE

We have already learnt that the difference in various states of matter is due to the difference in the distances between the constituent particles. What will happen when we start putting pressure and compress a gas enclosed in a cylinder? Will the particles come closer? Do you think that increasing or decreasing the pressure can change the state of matter?

Fig. 8: By applying pressure,particles of matter can be brought close together.

Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases.

Have you heard of solid carbon dioxide (CO₂)? It is stored under high pressure. Solid CO₂ gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere* without coming into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.

Thus, we can say that pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it will be solid, liquid or gas.

Fig. 9: Interconversion of the three states of matter.

Note: Atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by a gas. The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa): 1 atmosphere = 1.01 × 105 Pa. The pressure of air in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere, and is taken as the normal atmospheric pressure.

QUESTIONS

• Convert the following temperature to celsius scale:
(a)300 K
(b)573 K
• What is the physical state of water at:
(a)250ºC
(b)100ºC
• For any substance, why does the temperature remain constant during the change of state?
(d) We can easily move our hand in air but to do the same through a solid block of wood we need a karate expert.
• Suggest a method to liquefy atmospheric gases.

1.5 Evaporation

Do we always need to heat or change pressure for changing the state of matter? Can you quote some examples from everyday life where change of state from liquid to vapour takes place without the liquid reaching the boiling point? Water, when left uncovered, slowly changes into vapour. Wet clothes dry up. What happens to water in the above two examples?

We know that particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles with different amounts of kinetic energy. In the case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the surface, having higher kinetic energy, is able to break away from the forces of attraction of other particles and gets converted into vapour. This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.

1.5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

Let us understand this with an activity.

Activity 14

• Take 5 mL of water in a test tube and keep it near a window or under a fan.
• Take 5 mL of water in an open china dish and keep it near a window or under a fan.
• Take 5 mL of water in an open china dish and keep it inside a cupboard or on a shelf in your class.
• Record the room temperature.
• Record the time or days taken for the evaporation process in the above cases.
• Repeat the above three steps of activity on a rainy day and record your observations.
• What do you infer about the effect of temperature, surface area and wind velocity (speed) on evaporation?
  You must have observed that the rate of evaporation increases with–
• an increase of surface area: We know that evaporation is a surface phenomenon. If the surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases. For example, while putting clothes for drying up we spread them out.
• an increase of temperature: With the increase of temperature, more number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapour state.
• a decrease in humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air. The air around us cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapour at a given temperature. If the amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation decreases.
• an increase in wind speed: It is a common observation that clothes dry faster on a windy day. With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapour move away with the wind, decreasing the amount of water vapour in the surrounding.

1.5.2 HOW DOES EVAPORATION CAUSE COOLING?

In an open vessel, the liquid keeps on evaporating. The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surrounding to regain the energy lost during evaporation. This absorption of energy from the surroundings make the surroundings cold.

What happens when you pour some acetone (nail polish remover) on your palm? The particles gain energy from your palm or surroundings and evaporate causing the palm to feel cool.

After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because the large latent heat of vaporisation of water helps to cool the hot surface.

Can you cite some more examples from daily life where we can feel the effect of cooling due to evaporation?

Why should we wear cotton clothes in summer?

During summer, we perspire more because of the mechanism of our body which keeps us cool. We know that during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy from the surroundings or body surface and change into vapour. The heat energy equal to the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the body leaving the body cool. Cotton, being a good absorber of water helps in absorbing the sweat and exposing it to the atmosphere for easy evaporation.

Why do we see water droplets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice-cold water?

Let us take some ice-cold water in a tumbler. Soon we will see water droplets on the outer surface of the tumbler. The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water, loses energy and gets converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets.

QUESTIONS

• Why does a desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day?
• How does the water kept in an earthen pot (matka) become cool during summer?
• Why does our palm feel cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on it?
• Why are we able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than a cup?
• What type of clothes should we wear in summer?

More to know

Now scientists are talking of five states of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate.

Plasma: The state consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the form of ionised gases. The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma. Inside a neon sign bulb there is neon gas and inside a fluorescent tube there is helium gas or some other gas. The gas gets ionised, that is, gets charged when electrical energy flows through it. This charging up creates a plasma glowing inside the tube or bulb. The plasma glows with a special colour depending on the nature of gas. The Sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.

Bose-Einstein Condensate: In 1920, Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose had done some calculations for a fifth state of matter. Building on his calculations, Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter – the Bose- Einstein Condensate (BEC). In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the Nobel prize in physics for achieving “Bose-Einstein condensation”. The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures. You can log on to www.chem4kids.com to get more information on these fourth and fifth states of matter.

S.N.Bose                  Albert Einstein
(1894-1974)                (1879-1955)

What you have learnt

• Matter is made up of small particles.
• The matter around us exists in three states— solid, liquid and gas.
• The forces of attraction between the particles are maximum in solids, intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.
• The spaces in between the constituent particles and kinetic energy of the particles are minimum in the case of solids, intermediate in liquids and maximum in gases.
• The arrangement of particles is most ordered in the case of solids, in the case of liquids layers of particles can slip and slide over each other while for gases, there is no order, particles just move about randomly.
• The states of matter are inter-convertible. The state of matter can be changed by changing temperature or pressure.
• Sublimation is the change of gaseous state directly to solid state without going through liquid state, and vice versa.
• Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the liquid change into vapour state.
• Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour state.
• The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed to the atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity and the wind speed.
• Evaporation causes cooling.
• Latent heat of vaporization is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.
• Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at its melting point.
• Some measurable quantities and their units to remember:

Quantity	Unit	Symbol
Temperature	kelvin	K
Length	metre	m
Mass	kilogram	kg
Weight	newton	N
Volume	cubic metre	m3
Density	kilogram per cubic metre	kg m–3
Pressure	pascal	Pa

EXERCISE

Convert the following temperatures to the Celsius scale.
(a) 300 K  ^oC
(b) 573 K  ^oC
Convert the following temperatures to the Kelvin scale.
(a) 25°C  K
(b) 373°C  K
Give reason for the following observations.
(a) Naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving any solid.
(b) We can get the smell of perfume sitting several meters away.
Arrange the following substances in increasing order of forces of attraction between the particles
Water 
Sugar 
Oxygen 
What is the physical state of water at the following temperatures?
(a) 25°C   state
(b) 0°C   and state
(c) 100°C   and state
Give two reasons to justify—
(a) water at room temperature is a liquid.
(b) an iron almirah is a solid at room temperature.
Why is ice at 273 K more effective in cooling than water at the same temperature?
What produces more severe burns, boiling water or steam?
Name A,B,C,D,E and F in the following diagram showing change in its state


Group Activity
• Prepare a model to demonstrate movement of particles in solids,liquids and gases.
• For making this model you will need
• A transparent jar
• A big rubber balloon or piece of stretchable rubber sheet
• A string
• Few chick-peas or black gram or dry green peas.
• How to make?
• Put the seeds in the jar.
• Sew the string to the centre of the rubber sheet and put some tape to keep it tied securely.
• Stretch and tie the rubber sheet on the mouth of the jar.
• Your model is ready. Now run your fingers up and down the string by first tugging at it slowly and then rapidly.


Fig. 10:A model for happy converting of solid to liquid and liquid to gas.

2. IS MATTER AROUND US PURE

How do we judge whether milk, ghee, butter, salt, spices, mineral water or juice that we buy from the market are pure?

Fig. 1: Some consumable items

Have you ever noticed the word ‘pure’ written on the packs of these consumables? For a common person pure means having no adulteration. But, for a scientist all these things are actually mixtures of different substances and hence not pure. For example, milk is actually a mixture of water, fat, proteins etc. When a scientist says that something is pure, it means that all the constituent particles of that substance are the same in their chemical nature. A pure substance consists of a single type of particles.

As we look around, we can see that most of the matter around us exist as mixtures of two or more pure components, for example, sea water, minerals, soil etc. are all mixtures.

2.1 What is a Mixture?

Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter, known as a substance. A substance cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process. We know that dissolved sodium chloride can be separated from water by the physical process of evaporation. However, sodium chloride is itself a substance and cannot be separated by physical process into its chemical constituents. Similarly, sugar is a substance because it contains only one kind of pure matter and its composition is the same throughout.

Soft drink and soil are not single substances. Whatever the source of a substance may be, it will always have the same characteristic properties.

Therefore, we can say that a mixture contains more than one substance.

2.1.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES

Depending upon the nature of the components that form a mixture, we can have different types of mixtures.

Activity 2.1

• Let us divide the class into groups A, B, C and D.
• Group A takes a beaker containing 50 mL of water and one spatula full of copper sulphate powder. Group B takes 50 mL of water and two spatula full of copper sulphate powder in a beaker.
• Groups C and D can take different amounts of copper sulphate and potassium permanganate or common salt (sodium chloride) and mix the given components to form a mixture.
• Report the observations on the uniformity in colour and texture.
• Groups A and B have obtained a mixture which has a uniform composition throughout. Such mixtures are called homogeneous mixtures or solutions. Some other examples of such mixtures are: (i) salt in water and (ii) sugar in water. Compare the colour of the solutions of the two groups. Though both the groups have obtained copper sulphate solution but the intensity of colour of the solutions is different. This shows that a homogeneous mixture can have a variable composition.
• Groups C and D have obtained mixtures, which contain physically distinct parts and have non-uniform compositions. Such mixtures are called heterogeneous mixtures. Mixtures of sodium chloride and iron filings, salt and sulphur, and oil and water are examples of heterogeneous mixtures.

Activity 2.2

• Let us again divide the class into four groups – A, B, C and D.
• Distribute the following samples to each group:
− Few crystals of copper sulphate to group A.
−One spatula full of copper sulphate to group B.
− Chalk powder or wheat flour to group C.
− Few drops of milk or ink to group D.
• Each group should add the given sample in water and stir properly using a glass rod. Are the particles in the mixture visible?
• Direct a beam of light from a torch through the beaker containing the mixture and observe from the front. Was the path of the beam of light visible?
• Leave the mixtures undisturbed for a few minutes (and set up the filtration apparatus in the meantime). Is the mixture stable or do the particles begin to settle after some time?
• Filter the mixture. Is there any residue on the filter paper?
Filter the mixture. Is there any residue on the filter paper?
• Groups A and B have got a solution.
• Group C has got a suspension.
• Group D has got a colloidal solution.

Fig. 2: Filtration

Now, we shall learn about solutions, suspensions and colloidal solutions in the following sections.

QUESTIONS

• What is meant by a pure substance?
• List the points of differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.

2.2 What is a Solution?

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. You come across various types of solutions in your daily life. Lemonade, soda water etc. are all examples of solutions. Usually we think of a solution as a liquid that contains either a solid, liquid or a gas dissolved in it. But, we can also have solid solutions (alloys) and gaseous solutions (air). In a solution there is homogeneity at the particle level. For example, lemonade tastes the same throughout. This shows that particles of sugar or salt are evenly distributed in the solution.

More To Know

• Alloys: Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and cannot be separated into their components by physical methods. But still, an alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the properties of its constituents and can have variable composition.
• For example, brass is a mixture of approximately 30% zinc and 70% copper.

A solution has a solvent and a solute as its components. The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it (usually the component present in larger amount) is called the solvent. The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent (usually present in lesser quantity) is called the solute.

Examples

• A solution of sugar in water is a solid in liquid solution. In this solution, sugar is the solute and water is the solvent.
• A solution of iodine in alcohol known as ‘tincture of iodine’, has iodine (solid) as the solute and alcohol (liquid) as the solvent.
• Aerated drinks like soda water etc., are gas in liquid solutions. These contain carbon dioxide (gas) as solute and water (liquid) as solvent.
• Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a homogeneous mixture of a number of gases. Its two main constituents are: oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%). The other gases are present in very small quantities.

Properties of solution

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
• The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm (10^-9 metre) in diameter. So, they cannot be seen by naked eyes.
• Because of very small particle size, they do not scatter a beam of light passing through the solution. So, the path of light is not visible in a solution.
• The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration. The solute particles do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a solution is stable.

2.2.1 CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION

In activity 2.2, we observed that groups A and B obtained different shades of solutions. So, we understand that in a solution the relative proportion of the solute and solvent can be varied. Depending upon the amount of solute present in a solution, it can be called a dilute, concentrated or a saturated solution. Dilute and concentrated are comparative terms. In activity 2.2, the solution obtained by group A is dilute as compared to that obtained by group B.

Activity 2.3

• Take approximately 50 mL of water each in two separate beakers.
• Add salt in one beaker and sugar or barium chloride in the second beaker with continuous stirring.
• When no more solute can be dissolved, heat the contents of the beaker.
• Start adding the solute again.

Is the amount of salt and sugar or barium chloride, that can be dissolved in water at a given temperature, the same?

At any particular temperature, a solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is capable of dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution. In other words, when no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is called a saturated solution. The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at this temperature is called its solubility.

If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is called an unsaturated solution.

What would happen if you were to take a saturated solution at a certain temperature and cool it slowly.

We can infer from the above activity that different substances in a given solvent have different solubilities at the same temperature.

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of solution, or the amount of solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of solvent.

Concentration of solution =Amount of solute/Amount of solution

or

Amount of sloute/Amount of solvent

There are various ways of expressing the concentration of a solution, but here we will learn only two methods.

(i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution

= (Mass of solute/Mass of solution) x 100

(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution

= (Mass of solute/Mass of solution) x 100

Examples 2.1

A solution contains 40 g of common salt in 320 g of water. Calculate the concentration in terms of mass by mass percentage of the solution.

Solution:

Mass of solute (salt) = 40 g

Mass of solvent (water) = 320 g

We know,

Mass of solution = Mass of solute +Mass of solvent

= 40 g + 320 g

=360 g

Mass percentage of solution = (Mass of solute/Mass of solution) x 100

=(40/360)x 100 = 11.1%

2.2.2 What is a suspension?

Non-homogeneous systems, like those obtained by group C in activity 2.2, in which solids are dispersed in liquids, are called suspensions. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium. Particles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye.

Properties of a Suspension

• Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The particles of a suspension can be seen by the naked eye.
• The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
• The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, that is, a suspension is unstable. They can be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration. When the particles settle down, the suspension breaks and it does not scatter light any more.

2.2.3 WHAT IS A COLLOIDAL SOLUTION?

The mixture obtained by group D in activity 2.2 is called a colloid or a colloidal solution.

The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread throughout the solution. Due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as compared to that of a suspension, the mixture appears to be homogeneous. But actually, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for example, milk.

Because of the small size of colloidal particles, we cannot see them with naked eyes. But, these particles can easily scatter a beam of visible light as observed in activity 2.2. This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist who discovered this effect.

Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole. This happens due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.

Fig. 3: (a) Solution of copper sulphate does not show Tyndall effect, (b) mixture of water and milk shows Tyndall effect.

Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest. In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in air.

Fig 4:The Tyndall effect

Properties of a colloid

• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
• Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable.
• They cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration. But, a special technique of separation known as centrifugation (perform activity 2.5), can be used to separate the colloidal particles.

The components of a colloidal solution are the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase, and the component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing medium. Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid or gas) of the dispersing medium and the dispersed phase. A few common examples are given in Table 2.1. From this table you can see that they are very common everyday life.

QUESTIONS

• Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures with examples.
• How are sol, solution and suspension different from each other?
• To make a saturated solution, 36 g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 100 g of water at 293 K. Find its concentration at this temperature.

Table 2.1: Common examples of colloids

Dispersed Phase	Dispersing Medium	Type	Example
Liquid	Gas	Aerosol	Fog, clouds, mist
Solid	Gas	Aerosol	Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas	Liquid	Foam	Shaving cream
Liquid	Liquid	Emulsion	Milk, face cream
Solid	Liquid	Sol	Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas	Solid	Foam	Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid	Solid	Gel	Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid	Solid	Solid Sol	Coloured gemstone, milky glass

2.3 Separating the Components of a Mixture

We have learnt that most of the natural substances are not chemically pure. Different methods of separation are used to get individual components from a mixture. Separation makes it possible to study and use the individual components of a mixture.

Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple physical methods like handpicking, sieving, filtration that we use in our day-to-day life. Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the components of a mixture.

2.3.1 HOW CAN WE OBTAIN COLOURED COMPONENT (DYE) FROM BLUE/ BLACK INK?

Activity 2.4

• Fill half a beaker with water.
• Put a watch glass on the mouth of the beaker (Fig. 5).
• Put few drops of ink on the watch glass.
• Now start heating the beaker. We do not want to heat the ink directly. You will see that evaporation is taking place from the watch glass.
• Continue heating as the evaporation goes on and stop heating when you do not see any further change on the watch glass.
• Observe carefully and record your observations.


Fig 5:Evaporation
Now answer
• What do you think has got evaporated from the watch glass?
• Is there a residue on the watch glass?
• What is your interpretation? Is ink a single substance (pure) or is it a mixture?

We find that ink is a mixture of a dye in water. Thus, we can separate the volatile component (solvent) from its non-volatile solute by the method of evaporation.

2.3.2 HOW CAN WE SEPARATE CREAM FROM MILK?

Now-a-days, we get full-cream, toned and double-toned varieties of milk packed in polypacks or tetra packs in the market. These varieties of milk contain different amounts of fat.

Activity 2.5

• Take some full-cream milk in a test tube.
• Centrifuge it by using a centrifuging machine for two minutes. If a centrifuging machine is not available in the school, you can do this activity at home by using a milk churner, used in the kitchen.
• If you have a milk dairy nearby, visit it and ask (i) how they separate cream from milk and (ii) how they make cheese (paneer) from milk.
Now answer
• What do you observe on churning the milk?
• Explain how the separation of cream from milk takes place.

Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and pass through a filter paper. For such particles the filtration technique are separated by centrifugation. The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.

Applications

• Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
• Used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
• Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.

2.3.3 HOW CAN WE SEPARATE A MIXTURE OF TWO IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS?

Activity 2.6

• Let us try to separate kerosene oil from water using a separating funnel.
• Pour the mixture of kerosene oil and water in a separating funnel (Fig. 6).
• Let it stand undisturbed for sometime so that separate layers of oil and water are formed.
• Open the stopcock of the separating funnel and pour out the lower layer of water carefully.
• Close the stopcock of the separating funnel as the oil reaches the stop-cock.

Fig 6:Separation of immiscible liquids

Applications

• To separate mixture of oil and water.
• In the extraction of iron from its ore, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method to leave the molten iron at the bottom in the furnace.

The principle is that immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities.

2.3.4 HOW CAN WE SEPARATE A MIXTURE OF SALT AND AMMONIUM CHLORIDE?

We have learnt in chapter 1 that ammonium chloride changes directly from solid to gaseous state on heating. So, to separate such mixtures that contain a sublimable volatile component from a non-sublimable impurity (salt in this case), the sublimation process is used (Fig. 7). Some examples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene and anthracene.

Fig 7:Separation of ammonium chloride and salt by sublimation

2.3.5 IS THE DYE IN BLACK INK A SINGLE COLOUR?

Activity 2.7

• Take a thin strip of filter paper.
• Draw a line on it using a pencil, approximately 3 cm above the lower edge [Fig. 8 (a)].
• Put a small drop of ink (water soluble, that is, from a sketch pen or fountain pen) at the centre of the line. Let it dry.
• Lower the filter paper into a jar/glass/ beaker/test tube containing water so that the drop of ink on the paper is just above the water level, as shown in Fig. 8(b) and leave it undisturbed.
• Watch carefully, as the water rises up on the filter paper. Record your observations.


Fig 8:Separation of dyes in black ink using chromatography
Now answer
• What do you observe on the filter paper as the water rises on it?
• Do you obtain different colours on the filter paper strip?
• What according to you, can be the reason for the rise of the coloured spot on the paper strip?

The ink that we use has water as the solvent and the dye is soluble in it. As the water rises on the filter paper it takes along with it the dye particles. Usually, a dye is a mixture of two or more colours. The coloured component that is more soluble in water, rises faster and in this way the colours get separated.

This process of separation of components of a mixture is known as chromatography. Kroma in Greek means colour. This technique was first used for separation of colours, so this name was given. Chromatography is the technique used for separation of those solutes that dissolve in the same solvent.

With the advancement in technology, newer techniques of chromatography have been developed. You will study about chromatography in higher classes.

Applications

To separate

• colours in a dye
• pigments from natural colours
• drugs from blood.

2.3.6 HOW CAN WE SEPARATE A MIXTURE OF TWO MISCIBLE LIQUIDS?

Activity 2.8

• Let us try to separate acetone and water from their mixture.
• Take the mixture in a distillation flask. Fit it with a thermometer.
• Arrange the apparatus as shown in fig 9.
• Heat the mixture slowly keeping a close watch at the thermometer.
• The acetone vaporizes, condenses in the condenser and can be collected from the condenser outlet.
• Water is left behind in the distillation flask.


Fig 9:Separation of two miscible liquids by distillation
Now answer
• What do you observe as you start heating the mixture?
• At what temperature does the thermometer reading become constant for some time?
• What is the boiling point of acetone?
• Why do the two components separate??

This method is called distillation. It is used for the separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their boiling points.

To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, fractional distillation process is used, for example, for the separation of different gases from air, different factions from petroleum products etc. The apparatus is similar to that for simple distillation, except that a fractionating column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.

A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface for the vapours to cool and condense repeatedly, as shown in Fig. 10.

Fig 10:Fractional distillation

2.3.7 HOW CAN WE OBTAIN DIFFERENT GASES FROM AIR ?

Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation. The flow diagram (Fig. 11) shows the steps of the process.

Fig 11: Flow diagram shows the process of obtaining gases from air

If we want oxygen gas from air (Fig. 12), we have to separate out all the other gases present in the air. The air is compressed by increasing the pressure and is then cooled by decreasing the temperature to get liquid air. This liquid air is allowed to warm-up slowly in a fractional distillation column, where gases get separated at different heights depending upon their boiling points.

Answer the following:

• Arrange the gases present in air in increasing order of their boiling points.
• Which gas forms the liquid first as the air is cooled?

Fig 12: Separation of components of air

2.3.8 HOW CAN WE OBTAIN PURE COPPER SULPHATE FROM AN IMPURE SAMPLE?

Activity 2.9

• Take some (approximately 5 g) impure sample of copper sulphate in a china dish.
• Dissolve it in minimum amount of water.
• Filter the impurities out.
• Evaporate water from the copper sulphate solution so as to get a saturated solution.
• Cover the solution with a filter paper and leave it undisturbed at room temperature to cool slowly for a day.
• You will obtain the crystals of copper sulphate in the china dish.
• This process is called crystallisation.
Now answer
• What do you observe in the china dish?
• Do the crystals look alike?
• How will you separate the crystals from the liquid in the china dish?

The crystallisation method is used to purify solids. For example, the salt we get from sea water can have many impurities in it. To remove these impurities, the process of crystallisation is used. Crystallisation is a process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. Crystallisation technique is better than simple evaporation technique as –

• some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness.
• some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. On evaporation these contaminate the solid.

Applications

• Purification of salt that we get from sea water.
• Separation of crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.

Thus, by choosing one of the above methods according to the nature of the components of a mixture, we get a pure substance. With advancements in technology many more methods of separation techniques have been devised.

In cities, drinking water is supplied from water works. A flow diagram of a typical water works is shown in Fig. 13. From this figure write down the processes involved to get the supply of drinking water to your home from the water works and discuss it in your class.

Fig 13:Water purification system in warter works

QUESTIONS

• How will you separate a mixture containing kerosene and petrol (difference in their boiling points is more than 25ºC), which are miscible with each other?
• Name the technique to separate
(i) butter from curd  
(ii) salt from sea-water  
(iii) camphor from salt  
• What type of mixtures are separated by the technique of crystallisation?

2.4 Physical and Chemical Changes

To understand the difference between a pure substance and a mixture, let us understand the difference between a physical and a chemical change.

In the previous chapter, we have learnt about a few physical properties of matter. The properties that can be observed and specified like colour, hardness, rigidity, fluidity, density, melting point, boiling point etc. are the physical properites.

The interconversion of states is a physical change because these changes occur without a change in composition and no change in the chemical nature of the substance.

Although ice, water and water vapour all look different and display different physical properties, they are chemically the same.

Both water and cooking oil are liquid but their chemical characteristics are different. They differ in odour and inflammability. We know that oil burns in air whereas water extinguishes fire. It is this chemical property of oil that makes it different from water. Burning is a chemical change. During this process one substance reacts with another to undergo a change in chemical composition. Chemical change brings change in the chemical properties of matter and we get new substances. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.

During burning of a candle, both physical and chemical changes take place. Can you distinguish these?

QUESTIONS

• Classify the following as chemical or physical changes

S.No	Option	chemical or physical changes
a.	cutting of trees	chemical physical
b.	melting of butter in a pan	chemical physical
c.	rusting of almirah	chemical physical
d.	boiling of water to form steam	chemical physical
e.	passing of electric current, through water and the water breaking down into hydrogen and oxygen gases	chemical physical
f.	dissolving common salt in water	chemical physical
g.	making a fruit salad with raw fruits	chemical physical
h.	burning of paper and wood	chemical physical

• Try segregating the things around you as pure substances or mixtures.

2.5 What are the Types of Pure Substances?

On the basis of their chemical composition, substances can be classified either as elements or compounds.

2.5.1 ELEMENTS

Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1661. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), a French chemist, was the first to establish an experimentally useful definition of an element. He defined an element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.

Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids.

Metals usually show some or all of the following properties:

• They have a lustre (shine).
• They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour.
• They conduct heat and electricity.
• They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
• They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
• They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit).

Examples of metals are gold, silver, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.

Non-metals usually show some or all of the following properties:

• They display a variety of colours.
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.

Examples of non-metals are hydrogen, oxygen, iodine, carbon (coal, coke), bromine, chlorine etc. Some elements have intermediate properties between those of metals and non-metals, they are called metalloids; examples are boron, silicon, germanium etc.

More To Know

The number of elements known at present are more than 100. Ninety-two elements are naturally occurring and the rest are manmade. Majority of the elements are solid. Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature. Two elements are liquid at room temperature–mercury and bromine. Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room temperature (303 K).

2.5.2 COMPOUNDS

A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements, chemically combined with one another in a fixed proportion.

What do we get when two or more elements are combined?

Activity 2.10

• Divide the class into two groups. Give 50 g of iron filings and 3 g of sulphur powder in a china dish to both the groups.
Group I
• Mix and crush iron filings and sulphur powder.
Group II
• Mix and crush iron filings and sulphur powder. Heat this mixture strongly till red hot. Remove from flame and let the mixture cool.
Group I and II
• Check for magnetism in the material obtained. Bring a magnet near the material and check if the material is attracted towards the magnet.
• Compare the texture and colour of the material obtained by the groups.
• Add carbon disulphide to one part of the material obtained. Stir well and filter.
• Add dilute sulphuric acid or dilute hydrochloric acid to the other part of the material obtained.(Note: teacher supervision is necessary for this activity).
Table 2.2: Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures	Compounds
1. Elements or compounds just mix together to form a mixture and no new compound is formed.	1. Elements react to form new compounds.
2. A mixture has a variable composition.	2. The composition of each new substance is always fixed.
3. A mixture shows the properties of the constituent substances.	3. The new substance has totally different properties.
4. The constituents can be seperated fairly easily by physical methods.	4. The constituents can be separated only by chemical or electrochemical reactions.

• Perform all the above steps with both the elements (iron and sulphur) separately.
Now answer
• Did the material obtained by the two groups look the same?
• Which group has obtained a material with magnetic properties?
• Can we separate the components of the material obtained?
• On adding dilute sulphuric acid or dilute hydrochloric acid, did both the groups obtain a gas? Did the gas in both the cases smell the same or different?

The gas obtained by Group I is hydrogen, it is colourless, odourless and combustible– it is not advised to do the combustion test for hydrogen in the class. The gas obtained by Group II is hydrogen sulphide. It is a colourless gas with the smell of rotten eggs.

You must have observed that the products obtained by both the groups show different properties, though the starting materials were the same. Group I has carried out the activity involving a physical change whereas in case of Group II, a chemical change (a chemical reaction) has taken place.

• The material obtained by group I is a mixture of the two substances. The substances given are the elements– iron and sulphur.
• The properties of the mixture are the same as that of its constituents.
• The material obtained by group II is a compound.
• On heating the two elements strongly we get a compound, which has totally different properties compared to the combining elements.
• The composition of a compound is the same throughout. We can also observe that the texture and the colour of the compound are the same throughout. Thus, we can summarise the physical and chemical nature of matter in the following graphical organiser :

What you have learnt

• A mixture contains more than one substance (element and/or compound) mixed in any proportion.
• Mixtures can be separated into pure substances using appropriate separation techniques.
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
• The major component of a solution is called the solvent, and the minor, the solute.
• The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present per unit volume or per unit mass of the solution/solvent.
• Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked eyes, form a suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be seen with the naked eye, but is big enough to scatter light. Colloids are useful in industry and daily life. The particles are called the dispersed phase and the medium in which they are distributed is called the dispersion medium.
• Pure substances can be elements or compounds. An element is a form of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical reactions into simpler substances. A compound is a substance composed of two or more different types of elements, chemically combined in a fixed proportion.
• Properties of a compound are different from its constituent elements, whereas a mixture shows the properties of its constituting elements or compounds.

EXERCISE

Which separation techniques will you apply for the separation of the following?
(a) Sodium chloride from its solution in water.
(b) Ammonium chloride from a mixture containing sodium chloride and ammonium chloride.
(c) Small pieces of metal in the engine oil of a car.
(d) Different pigments from an extract of flower petals.
(e) Butter from curd.
(f) Oil from water.
(g) Tea leaves from tea.
(h) Iron pins from sand.
(i) Wheat grains from husk.
(j) Fine mud particles suspended in water.
• Write the steps you would use for making tea. Use the words solution, solvent, solute, dissolve, soluble, insoluble, filtrate and residue.
• Pragya tested the solubility of three different substances at different temperatures and collected the data as given below (results are given in the following table, as grams of substance dissolved in 100 grams of water to form a saturated solution).
(a) What mass of potassium nitrate would be needed to produce a saturated solution of potassium nitrate in 50 grams of water at 313 K?
(b) Pragya makes a saturated solution of potassium chloride in water at 353 K and leaves the solution to cool at room temperature. What would she observe as the solution cools? Explain.
(c) Find the solubility of each salt at 293 K. Which salt has the highest solubility at this temperature?
(d) What is the effect of change of temperature on the solubility of a salt?
• Explain the following giving examples.
(a) saturated solution
(b) pure substance
(c) colloid
(d) suspension
• Classify each of the following as a homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture.

S.No	Mixture	Homogeneous/Heterogeneous
a.	Soda water	Homogeneous    Heterogeneous
b.	Wood.	Homogeneous    Heterogeneous
c.	Air	Homogeneous    Heterogeneous
d.	Soil	Homogeneous    Heterogeneous
e.	Vinegar	Homogeneous    Heterogeneous
f.	Filtered tea	Homogeneous    Heterogeneous

• How would you confirm that a colourless liquid given to you is pure water?
• Which of the following materials fall in the category of a “pure substance”?
(a) Ice
(b) Milk
(c) Iron
(d) Hydrochloric acid
(e) Calcium oxide
(f) Mercury
(g) Brick
(h) Wood
(i) Air
Identify the solutions among the following mixtures.
(a) Soil
(b) Sea water
(c) Air
(d) Coal
(e) Soda water
Which of the following will show “Tyndall effect”?
(a) Salt solution
(b) Milk
(c) Copper sulphate solution
(d) Starch solution
• Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures.

S.No	Option	elements/compounds/mixtures
a.	Sodium	elements compounds mixtures
b.	Soil	elements compounds mixtures
c.	Sugar solution	elements compounds mixtures
d.	Silver	elements compounds mixtures
e.	Calcium carbonate	elements compounds mixtures
f.	Tin	elements compounds mixtures
g.	Silicon	elements compounds mixtures
h.	Coal	elements compounds mixtures
i.	Air	elements compounds mixtures
j.	Soap	elements compounds mixtures
k.	Methane	elements compounds mixtures
l.	Carbon dioxide	elements compounds mixtures
m.	Blood	elements compounds mixtures

Which of the following are chemical changes?
(a) Growth of a plant
(b) Rusting of iron
(c) Mixing of iron filings and sand
(d) Cooking of food
(e) Digestion of food
(f) Freezing of water
(g) Burning of a candle

Group Activity

Take an earthen pot (mutka), some pebbles and sand. Design a small-scale filtration plant that you could use to clean muddy `